一些现代学者(如菲尔丁·赫德森·加里森(英语:Fielding Hudson Garrison))认为,现代地质学开始于中世纪伊斯兰世界。[8]比魯尼就是最早的穆斯林地质学家(英语:Geography in medieval Islam)之一, 他的著作有最早的叙述印度地质(英语:Geology of India)的文章,提出了印度次大陆曾经是海洋的假设。[9]伊斯兰学者伊本·西那对山脉的形成,地震的原因,以及其他一些现代地理学的论题给出了详细的解释,这些内容为日后地质学的发展提供了基础。[10][11]在中国,博学家沈括(1031–1095)提出陆地形成的假说。他在一个离海洋几百公里远的山中的看到,在一个地质地层里有贝壳类生物化石。由此他推论,陆地是由山脉的侵蚀和淤泥的沉积所形成的。[12]
^Bahlburg, Heinrich;Breitkreuz, Christof. Grundlagen der Geologie. München: Spektrum Akademischer Verlag. 2012. ISBN 978-3-827-42820-2.
^International Commission on Stratigraphy (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆). stratigraphy.org
^ 3.03.1Yuri Amelin, Alexander N. Krot, Ian D. Hutcheon, Alexander A. Ulyanov. Lead Isotopic Ages of Chondrules and Calcium-Aluminum-Rich Inclusions. Science. 2002-09-06, 297 (5587): 1678–1683 [2018-04-02]. ISSN 0036-8075. doi:10.1126/science.1073950. (原始内容于2018-09-16) (英语).
^ 4.04.1Patterson, C. Age of Meteorites and the Earth. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 1956, 10: 230–237.
^ 5.05.1Dalrymple, G. Brent. The age of the earth. Stanford, California: Stanford Univ. Press. 1994. ISBN 0-8047-2331-1.
^Simon Winchester ;. The map that changed the world: William Smith and the birth of modern geology. New York, NY: Perennial. 2002. ISBN 0-06-093180-9.
^"这些撒拉逊人不仅仅是几何、化学和地质学的起源者,还是路灯、窗玻璃、焰火、弦乐器、栽培水果、香水、香料等等的发明者。" (Fielding H. Garrison, An introduction to the history of medicine, W.B. Saunders, 1921, p. 116)
^Asimov, M. S.; Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (编). The Age of Achievement: A.D. 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century : The Achievements. History of civilizations of Central Asia. : 211–214. ISBN 978-92-3-102719-2.
^Toulmin, S. and Goodfield, J. (1965), ’The Ancestry of science: The Discovery of Time’, Hutchinson & Co., London, p. 64
^Munin M. Al-Rawi. The Contribution of Ibn Sina (Avicenna) to the development of Earth Sciences (pdf) (报告). Manchester, UK: Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation. November 2002 [April 2012]. Publication 4039. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2013-01-19).
^Needham, Joseph. Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. 1986: 603–604.
^Pellant, Chris. Smithsonian Handbooks: Rocks & Minerals. New York: DK. 2002. ISBN 978-0-789-49106-0.
^Neubert, Jörg. MUNDUS MINERALIS 2016: Die Welt der Mineralien. Chemnitz: Phillis Verlag. 2015. ISBN 978-3-957-56016-2.