维基百科
魯凱語文法
魯凱語文法(Rukai grammar)為基於魯凱語之文法。在文法的分類上台灣南島語言並不同於一般的分析語或其它综合语裡的動詞、名詞、形容詞、介詞和副詞等之基本詞類分類。比如台灣南島語裡普遍沒有副詞，而副詞的概念一般以動詞方式呈現、可稱之為「副動詞」，類之於俄语裡的副動詞。[1] 對於數、格(附著)及时态改變時語詞的變化。魯凱語只有代詞本身會依格位之不同而進行变格運作。謂語本身不會依人称、数、性之變化而進行变位運作；而是基於已然語氣及非已然語氣、以主事(AF)及非主事(NAF)的觀點結合時體氣語詞(TAM/TMA/動貌詞)，再配合謂語的时态、体、式進行焦點變換來運作。基本的文法分類是將魯凱語詞類之詞綴、字詞結構及分類法，對比分析語等之詞類分類法加以條析判別。[2][3][4][5][6]
詞彙與構詞
構詞方法
基本上萬山魯凱語音節採用一種基本的(C)V 構詞，通常詞構有2到4個音節(Zeitoun 2007)。有4種構詞程序。
- 加詞綴(affixation)
- 語根修飾(stem modification)
- 重複詞(reduplication/RED)
- 複合詞(compounding)
下列重複範式是產生在霧台魯凱語裡[7]：
- 重複名詞語根
- N + RED '大量'
- N(數詞、或時段) + RED '延長一陣子...'
- 重複動詞語根
- V + RED '繼續，繼續做，重複做'
- V + RED '未來式'
- V (靜態詞) + RED '強烈，比較大'
在霧台魯凱語裡，附著式的語根重覆能夠被用來產生若干基本的名詞及動詞，比如：'打雷'、'山' ，以及 '刮擦'[7]。
詞綴
下列為萬山魯凱語的詞綴來自齊莉莎(Zeitoun 2007)。
- a- 'when'
- a- (action/state nominalization)
- a- 'plural'
- -a 'beyond (in time or space)'
- -a 'irrealis'
- -a 'imperative'
- -ae (state nominalization)
- a- ... -ae; allomorph: ... -ae (objective nominalization; negative imperative)
- amo- 'will'
- -ane (meaning unknown; used on verbs to insult someone)
- -a-nga 'imperative' (mild requests)
- apaa- 'reciprocal causative' (dynamic verbs)
- apano- 'like to, prone to, have a tendency to'
- apa'a 'reciprocal causative' (stative verbs)
- apa'ohi- 'split (causative form)'
- -ci 'snivel'
- dh- 'invisible'
- i- 'at'
- -i 'irrealis'
- -i- ... -e (marking of the oblique case on personal and impersonal pronouns)
- -ka 'predicative negation'
- ka- 'in fact, indeed, actually'
- ka- ... -ae 'genuine, real, original'
- kala- ... -ae 'temporal nominalization'
- kapa ~ kama- 'continuously'
- kapa ... -nga 'all, every'
- ki- 'modal negation'
- ki- ... -ae 'whose'
- k<in>-a- ... -ae 'more and more'
- la- 'plural'
- la-ma'a- 'reciprocal'
- -lo 'plural' (demonstrative pronouns)
- m- (dynamic (finite and subjunctive) verbs; alternates with k-, p-, or Ø in its non-finite form)
- ma- (stative (finite and subjunctive) verbs; alternates with ka- in its non-finite form)
- ma- ... -le (forms 'tens')
- ma-Ca- 'reciprocity' (dynamic (finite and subjunctive) verbs; alternates with pa-Ca; Ca refers to the reduplication of the first consonant)
- maa- 'reciprocity' (dynamic (finite and subjunctive) verbs; alternates with paa)
- maa- ... -e (~ paa- ... -e; maa- (dual reciprocal) + -e (meaning unknown))
- maaraka- 'each/both'
- maatali- ... -le/-lo '(a number of) floors'
- maka- 'finish'
- maka- ... -le/-lo (~ paka- ... -le/-lo) 'up to N-/for N- days/months/years'
- maka'an- (attaches only to aleve 'below' and lrahalre 'above')
- makini- ... -(a)e (~ pakini- ... -(a)e) 'all'
- mali- (~ pali) 'along'
- ma'ohi (~ pa'ohi) 'split'
- m-o- (~ o-) 'holds X's ritual (where X = household name)' (attaches to household names to form dynamic verbs)
- m-o- (~ o-) 'toward'
- mo- 'anti-causative'
- m-ore (~ ore-) 'perform'
- mota'a- (~ ota'a-) 'raise'
- n- 'visible'
- -na 'still'
- naa- 'continuously'
- -nae 'place where'
- -nae 'time when'
- -nga 'already'
- -nga 'superlative'
- ni- 'counterfactuality (irrealis)'
- ni- ... -a 'concessive'
- o- 'dynamic / finite / realis / active'
- o- ... -e 'dress well' (derives verbs from nouns)
- o-ara- 'only' (attached to verbs)
- o-ka'a- ... -le/-lo (~ ko'a- ... -le/-lo) 'a number of )recipients'
- om- (~ m- / ~ Ø) 'dynamic / finite / realis / active'
- o-tali (~ tali- / ~ toli) 'wrap up, pack up'
- o-tali (~ tali-) 'made of'
- o-tara- (~ tara-) 'a number of months / years'
- taro- (doublet form: tao-) 'group of persons in movement'
- o-ta'i- (~ ta'i-) 'precede'
- o-'ara- (~ 'ara-) 'early'
- pa- 'causative'
- pa- 'every N-times'
- paori 'stick to, think about'
- pa'a- ... -ae '(what is) left'
- pe- 'forbiddance (?)'
- pi- 'local causative'
- po- 'causative of movement'
- po- 'bear, grow N' (attaches to nouns)
- saka- 'external'
- samori- 'keep on ... -ing' (attaches only to the root kane 'to eat')
- sa'api- 'prone to, inclined to'
- so- 'tribute'
- ta- (subjective nominalization)
- ta- 'inalienability' (kinship and color terms)
- ta- ... -(a)e 'place where'
- ta- ... -ae 'time when'
- ta- ... -n-ae (forms derived locative nominal)
- taka- 'a number of persons'
- tako- 'while'
- tala- 'container' (?; found only with the root ove'eke)
- tali- 'belong to'
- ta'a- 'with (a group of persons)'
- ta'a- ... -le/-lo 'measure with an extended arm' (bound numerals)
- to- 'do, make, produce, build'
- toka- ... -(a)e 'use ... for, by ... -ing'
- to'a- 'use ... to, for'
- 'a- 'instrument/manner nominalizer'
- 'a- ... -e 'have a lot of'
- 'aa- 'turn into'
- 'aka- 'Nth' (ordinal prefix 'a- + stative marker ka- (non-finite form))
- 'ako- (doublet form: 'ako- ... -ae) 'speak (out)'
- 'ako- 'barely, a little'
- 'ako- ... -le 'say a number of times'
- 'ako- ... -nga 'more'
- 'ali- 'from (in time or space)' (< 'aliki '(come) from')
- 'ano- 'walk, ride, take'
- 'ano- 'unknown meaning' (only attaches to stative roots)
- 'ano-Ca- 'along/with a number of persons (in movement)' (attaches to bound numeral forms and certain other roots)
- 'ano- ... -ae 'entirely, completely, cease, alleviate'
- 'ao- ... -le/-lo 'the Nth time' (ordinal prefix 'a- + 'o- ... -le/-lo 'a number of times')
- 'apaka- ... -le/-lo 'the Nth day' (ordinal prefix 'a- + paka- ... -le/-lo 'up to/for a number of days / months / years)
- 'api- 'like ... -ing'
- 'a-po- 'as a result of'
- 'apo- 'come out'
- 'asa- ... -ae 'what's the use of'
- 'asi- (meaning unknown; found only once in the word 'work')
- 'i- 'passive'
- 'i- 'verbalizer' (from nouns; polysemous prefix). Semantic core of 'i-N is 'get, obtain-N', although it can also be glossed as 'get, harvest, gather, look after, bear, have for, kill, etc.'
- 'i- 'put on, wear' (derives verbs from nouns)
- 'ia- ... ae 'because of, out of'
- 'ini- 'movement toward'
- 'ini- 'cross'
- 'ini- 'consume'
- 'ini-Ca- '(one)self' (reflexive)
- 'ini- ... -ae 'pretend'
- 'ini- ... (-ae) 'behave like, look like' (derived from 'inilrao 'resemble')
- 'ira- 'for' (derived from 'iraki '(do) for')
- 'o- 'take off'
- 'o- ... -le/-lo 'a number of times' (attaches to bound numerals)
- 'o- ... -le/-lo 'measure' (must be followed by certain words to indicate a measure with the hand, foot, ruler, etc.)
- 'o-tali 'unpack'
下列霧台魯凱語詞綴參考自(Comparative Austronesian Dictionary 1995)。
- 名詞詞綴
- ka- ... -anə + N 'something real or genuine
- ko- + Pronoun 'nominative'
- moasaka- + N (numeral) 'ordinal'
- sa- ... anə + V 'instrument, tool'
- sa- + N 'some body parts'
- ta- ... -anə + N 'location, time'
- ta-ra + N 'agentive, a person specialised in...'
- 動詞詞綴
- -a- + V 'realis'
- -a + V 'imperative'
- ki- + N 'to gather, to collect, to harvest'
- ki- + V 'dative-focus, involuntary action'
- ko- + N 'to remove, to peel'
- ko- + V 'intransitive, patient-focus'
- ma- + V 'mutual, reciprocal'
- maa- + V 'stative'
- mo- + N 'to discharge, remove'
- mo- + V '(to go) self-motion, non-causative'
- ŋi- + V 'to act or to move in a certain direction or manner'
- ŋo- + N 'to ride'
- pa- + V 'causative'
- si- + V (bound stem) 'verbal prefix'
- si- + N 'to wear, to carry, to possess'
- so- + N 'to spit, to clean, to give out'
- to- + N 'to make, produce, bring forth'
- θi + N 'to release'
- w- + V 'agent-focus, verbal prefix'
詞類類別
齊莉莎(Zeitoun 2007)將萬山魯凱語分為11類語詞：
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功能詞
下列萬山魯凱語功能詞來自齊莉莎(Zeitoun 2007)。
- la – 和、與
- mani – 然後、接著
基本句型及詞序
不像大多數其它台灣南島語言，魯凱語為主賓格語言、而不是典型的焦點系統之作格語言形式 (Zeitoun 2007)。魯凱語也是台灣南島語裡唯一「沒有焦點系統」的語言。[9] 於語言的演進上、如果沒有焦點(focus)則往往會往「主賓格語言(AS-O)」的方向發展，不過有時「對格語言」也會含有「部份作格性(A-SO)」的現象或則反之亦然。總結在
萬山魯凱語有兩種句型(Zeitoun 2007)：
- 名詞化
- 動詞化
補語化採用4種策略(Zeitoun 2007)：
- 零策略(zero strategy，比如：並列補語)
- 動詞連續化(verb serialization)
- 名物化(nominalization)
- 使役動詞化(causativization)
限定受詞在主動及被動句子裡均可作主題。
格位標記、句法關係及代名詞系統
代名詞系統
魯凱語代詞有人稱代詞，指示代詞等。且人稱代詞也兼具有格位標記之功能。台灣南島語除鄒語及巴宰語等之外，絕大多數無第3人稱(單複數)主格附著格式。[10] 下列代名詞表來自齊莎莉(Zeitoun 1997)。[11] 要注意的是萬山魯凱語經常使用附著式。
| 人稱代名詞形式 | 主題格 | 主格 | 斜格 | 屬格 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 第1人稱單數 | kunaku | -(n)aku, naw- | nakuanə | -li |
| 第2人稱單數 | kusu | -su | musuanə | -su |
| 第3人稱單數(視界) | kuini | – | inianə | -ini |
| 第3人稱單數(非視界) | kuiɖa | – | – | – |
| 第1人稱複數(包括式) | kuta | -ta | mitaanə | -ta |
| 第1人稱複數(排除式) | kunai | -nai | naianə | -nai |
| 第2人稱單數 | kunumi | -numi, -nu | numianə | -numi |
| 第3人稱複數(視界) | kuini | – | inianə | -ini |
| 第3人稱複數(非視界) | kuiɖa | – | – | – |
| 人稱代名詞形式 | 主題格 | 主格 | 斜格 | 屬格 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 第1稱單數 | i kɨkɨ | ku-, kɨkɨ | ŋkua | -li |
| 第2人稱單數 | i musu | su-, musu | sua | -su |
| 第3人稱單數(視界) | i kini | kini | nia | -ini |
| 第3人稱單數(非視界) | i kiɖi | kiɖi | ɖia | -ɖa |
| 第1人稱複數(包括式) | i miti | ta-, miti | mitia | -ta |
| 第1人稱複數(排除式) | i knamɨ | namɨ-, knamɨ | nmaa | -namɨ |
| 第2人稱複數 | i mumu | mu-, mumu | mua | -mu |
| 第3人稱複數(視界) | i kini | kini | nia | -ini |
| 第3人稱複數(非視界) | i kiɖi | kiɖi | ɖia | -ɖa |
| 人稱代名詞形式 | 主題格 | 主格 | 斜格 | 屬格 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 第1人稱單數 | iɭaə | -ɭao, nao- | -i-a-ə | -li |
| 第2人稱單數 | imiaʔə | -moʔo | i-miaʔ-ə | -ʔo |
| 第3人稱單數(視界) | ana | – | -i-n-ə | -(n)i |
| 第3人稱單數(非視界) | ðona | – | -i-ð-ə | -ða |
| 第1人稱複數(包括式) | imitə, ita | -mita, -ta | -i-mit-ə | -ta |
| 第1人稱複數(排除式) | inamə | -nai | -i-nam-ə | -nai |
| 第2人稱複數 | inomə | -nomi | -i-nom-ə | -nomi |
| 第3人稱複數(視界) | ana-lo | – | -i-l-i-n-ə | -l-i-ni |
| 第3人稱複數(非視界) | ðona-lo | – | -i-l-i-ð-ə | -l-i-ða |
動詞
下列為萬山魯凱語的動詞詞綴來自齊莎莉(Zeitoun 2007)。
- 動態動詞：o-；較稀少的表示為 om- and m-
- 靜態動詞：ma-
- 否定前綴：ki-
- 使役式：pa-
- ʔini-Ca- "(一個人)自身"
- mati- "好的…"
- k-in-a ... aə "…較多"
- ʔako- "勉強地，僅僅"
- ka- "事實上"
- mata ... aə "確切地"
參見
註釋
- ^ 張永利,"台灣南島語言語法：語言類型與理論的啟示（Kavalan）"[1] （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, 語言學門熱門前瞻研究,2010年12月/12卷1期,pp.112-127.
- ^ Barbara B.H. Partee, A.G. ter Meulen, R. Wall,"Mathematical Methods in Linguistics (Studies in Linguistics and Philosophy)(語言研究的數學方法)"[2] （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）[3] （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）,Springer,1/e 1993 edition(April 30, 1990). ISBN 9027722455 ，ISBN 978-9027722454
- ^ А. А. Реформатский, "Введение в Язковедение", Аспект Пресс--Москва, 1996. ISBN 5-7567-0046-3，ISBN 9785756700466
- ^ R.M.W.Dixon,"The Rise and Fall of Languages"[4] （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）,Cambridge University Press (January 13, 1998). ISBN 978-0521626545 ISBN 0521626544
- ^ Paul J. Hooper,Elizabeth Closs Traugott,"Grammaticalization(語法化/語法化學說)"[5] （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）,Cambridge University Press; 2 edition (August 25, 2003). ISBN 0521804213 ISBN 978-0521804219
- ^ ,Joan Bybee, Revere Perkins, William Pagliuca,"The Evolution of Grammar: Tense, Aspect, and Modality in the Languages of the World(語法的演化--世界語言的時，體和情態)"[6] （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）,University of Chicago Press; 1 edition (November 15, 1994). ISBN 978-0226086651
- ^ 7.0 7.1 [www.trussel2.com/ACD Austronesian Comparative Dictionary, web edition] Robert Blust and Stephen Trussel 2010: revision 12/17/2016
- ^ Elizabeth Zeitoun,Stacy Fang-ching Teng, and Raleigh Ferrell,"Reconstruction of '2' in PAn and Related Issues"[7][失效連結],Academia Sinica,Language and Linguistics/11.4:853-884,2010.
- ^ 李壬癸院士,"台灣南島語言的奧秘"[8] （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）,中研院語言所,2007.
- ^ 李壬癸院士,"珍惜台灣南島語言",前衛出版社,2010-1,p.201.ISBN 9789578016354
- ^ Zeitoun, Elizabeth. 1997. The Pronominal System of Mantauran (Rukai) （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）. Oceanic Linguistics, Vol. 36, No. 2 (Dec., 1997), pp. 312–346.
參考文獻
- 沈家煊,"名詞和動詞"(Of Noun and Verb),北京商務印書館,2016年6月. ISBN 978-7-100-11363-2
- Elizabeth Zeitoun. 2007. A grammar of Mantauran (Rukai). Taipei: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica. Language and Linguistics Monograph Series A4-2. xviii + 551 pp. ISBN 978-986-01-1219-1
- Elizabeth Zeitoun(齊莉莎),"萬山魯凱語語法",中央研究院語言學研究所,November 30/2007.ISBN 978-986-01-1219-1
- 齊莉莎(Elizabeth Zeitoun)/林惠娟,"不要忘記咱們萬山的故事：過去的回憶",中央研究院語言學研究所,November 30/2007.ISBN 957-01-5587-6
- 齊莉莎,"魯凱語萬山方言名物化結構探究(Nominalization in Mantauran (Rukai))",中央研究院語言學研究所,(3:1附冊期),2002-01.
- 帥德樂,"南島語的「焦點屈折」是詞彙衍生：名物化的證據(Austronesian ‘Focus’ as Derivation: Evidence from Nominalization)",中央研究院語言學研究所,(3:1附冊期),pp.427-479,2002-01.