小馬丁·路德·金恩(英語:Martin Luther King, Jr.,1929年1月15日-1968年4月4日)是一位美國牧師、社會運動者、人權主義者和非裔美國人民權運動領袖,也是1964年諾貝爾和平獎得主。他主張以非暴力的公民抗命方法爭取非裔美國人的基本權利,而成為美國進步主義(英语:Progressivism in the United States)的象徵[1]。
小马丁·路德·金 Martin Luther King Jr.
1964年的金
南方基督教領導會議(英语:Southern Christian Leadership Conference)第1任主席
馬丁·路德·金出生時名為麥可·金(Michael King),他的父親為了紀念16世紀歐洲宗教改革領袖馬丁·路德而將他改名為小馬丁·路德·金[2]。身為一位浸信會牧師,金在他職業生涯早期就已開始投入民權運動,曾領導1955年聯合抵制蒙哥馬利公車運動,並在1957年協助建立南方基督教領袖會議(英语:Southern Christian Leadership Conference)(SCLC)。擔任SCLC首任主席期間,金曾在1962年於喬治亞州奧爾巴尼發起反種族隔離抗爭,但以失敗告終。不過,他在阿拉巴馬州伯明罕組織的非暴力抗議行動則成為全美新聞焦點,與粗暴的警方恰成對比。1963年,金發起「向華盛頓進軍」行動,在林肯紀念堂前發表《我有一個夢》演講,成為美國歷史上最負名望的演說家。金的左派激進思想使他成為美國聯邦調查局「反諜計畫」的監控對象之一,後者懷疑金可能與共產主義有關。聯邦調查局曾查出金恩的婚外情記錄,並向美國政府汇報,然後再向金寄出匿名信,意圖以此逼他自殺。[3]
1964年10月14日,諾貝爾委員會因小馬丁·路德·金長期以非暴力方法追求種族平等理想而授予他諾貝爾和平獎。1965年,他與SCLC共同組織「由塞爾瑪向蒙哥馬利進軍(英语:Selma to Montgomery marches)」行動;隔年又將民權運動往北擴散至芝加哥。在他生命最後幾年,除了民權運動,金也關注美國的貧窮問題(英语:Poverty in the United States)和越南戰爭,發表《越南背後:打破沉默的時刻(英语:Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence)》演講說明他對越戰的立場轉變。金以曾規劃全美性質的佔領華盛頓特區行動,是為「窮人運動(英语:Poor People's Campaign)」。1968年4月4日,馬丁·路德·金遭人暗殺,地點是田納西州孟斐斯一家汽車旅館。金遇刺後,全美各地都出現暴動(英语:King assassination riots)。之後,詹姆斯·厄爾·雷遭到逮捕,被指為殺害金的兇手;根據他的辯詞,他是與政府特工一同策劃或犯案的,直到暗殺案後20年仍如此堅稱。1999年7月召開的民事審判庭上,餐廳老闆勞伊德·宙沃斯(英语:Loyd Jowers)被指為金遇刺案的共犯。
金過世後,1977年,美國總統傑拉爾德·福特向他追贈總統自由勳章;2004年,美國國會決議向金追贈國會金質獎章,兩者都是美國平民最高榮譽。1986年,每年一月的第三個星期一被定為「馬丁·路德·金紀念日」,是美國聯邦假日(英语:Federal holidays in the United States)之一。另有數百條街道以金恩命名(英语:List of streets named after Martin Luther King, Jr.)。2011年,位在華盛頓特區國家廣場上的馬丁·路德·金恩紀念碑(英语:Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial)正式開放給公眾參觀。
馬丁·路德·金於1929年1月15日在美國喬治亞州亞特蘭大出生,是老馬丁·路德·金(英语:Martin Luther King, Sr.)和亞伯達·威廉·金(英语:Alberta Williams King)的兒子[4]。他出生時的名字是麥可·金(Michael King),與他父親出生時的名字相同[5]。老馬丁·路德·金1934年前往納粹德國政權時的柏林參加第五屆浸信會世界聯合會議(Fifth Baptist World Alliance Congress)後,更改他們父子倆的名字,以紀念16世紀宗教改革領袖、德國神學家馬丁·路德[2]。
小馬丁·路德·金是金家第二個孩子,他有一位姊姊克里絲汀·金·法瑞絲(英语:Christine King Farris)和一個弟弟阿爾弗雷德·丹尼爾·威廉斯·金(英语:Alfred Daniel Williams King)[6]。1939年時,金與他參加的教會唱詩班一同在《亂世佳人》於亞特蘭大首映時獻唱[7]。
金成長於亞特蘭大,在當地布魯克·T·華盛頓高中(英语:Washington High School (Atlanta))就讀[10]。他是個早熟的學生,得以跳級免修九年級和十二年級課程,直接進入莫爾豪斯學院就讀,時年15歲。1948年,小馬丁·路德·金從莫爾豪斯學院畢業,獲得社會學學士學位。而後金進入賓夕法尼亞州切斯特的克魯塞斯神學院(英语:Crozer Theological Seminary)就讀,並於1951年獲得神學學士學位[11][12]。1953年6月18日,金與科麗塔·史考特在科麗塔位於阿拉巴馬州海博格(英语:Heiberger, Alabama)的娘家草坪上成親[13]。兩人育有4名子女:尤蘭達·金(英语:Yolanda King)、馬丁·路德·金三世(英语:Martin Luther King III)、戴科斯特·史考特·金(英语:Dexter Scott King)、柏妮絲·金(英语:Bernice King)[14]。
1954年,金受阿拉巴馬州蒙哥馬利市的迪克斯特大道浸信會教堂(英语:Dexter Avenue Baptist Church)聘為牧師,時年25歲。其後金便在波士頓大學進行博士研究,主題是系統神學,並於1955年6月5日獲得博士學位,博士論文題目為《蒂利希和威曼思想中關於上帝的觀念之比較》(A Comparison of the Conceptions of God in the Thinking of Paul Tillich and Henry Nelson Wieman)。
20世纪50年代末,资深民权活动家非裔美国人贝雅·拉斯丁(Bayard Rustin)是马丁·路德·金的主要顾问和导师。[19]拉斯丁是一位基督教和平主义者;他还研究了圣雄甘地的教义并将其应用于40年代的旅程和解(Journey of Reconciliation)运动中。[20]金起初并不知道甘地,在20世纪50年代初期的活动中他几乎未使用过“非暴力”这一术语。当时金信奉并且实行自卫,甚至在他家里还备着枪支以防有袭击者。拉斯丁给金指出另一种斗争方式——非暴力抵抗,并力陈非暴力抵抗相比于自卫来说是实现民权运动目标的一种更好的途径。[21]拉斯丁还建议金投身于非暴力抵抗。[22]
马丁·路德·金受印度圣雄甘地成功的非暴力独立运动影响很深,“一直想走访印度”。[23]这个愿望在1959年4月实现:贵格会所属的美国友谊服务委员会(Quaker group the American Friends Service Committee)同意援助金的印度之旅。[24]这趟旅程使金更加了解非暴力抵抗的内涵,决意献身于美国民权运动。在离开印度前夕,金發表了一篇电台演讲,他说:“在来到印度之前,我从未如此相信对于受压迫的人们来说,非暴力抵抗是争取公平和尊严的最有力的武器。”
1955年12月1日,罗莎·帕克斯因拒绝将自己的座位让给白人而被捕入狱。[47]很快,尼克松和金等人发起了蒙哥马利抵制乘车运动。[48]这次抵制运动持续了385天,[49]而且由于局势严峻,金的家被炸毁,[50]金本人也曾被捕入狱。最终这场运动以美国联邦地区法院在布劳德诉盖尔案(Browder v. Gayle)中宣布“要求在公共汽车上进行种族隔离的阿拉巴马州的州法律和地方法律违宪”并终止蒙哥马利公交车种族隔离制度而告终。[51][52] 在这次蒙哥马利运动中所起的重要作用让金风靡全美,成为最著名的民权运动代言人。[53]
南方基督教领袖大会
1957年,金、拉尔夫·艾伯纳西(Ralph Abernathy)、弗雷德·舒特尔斯沃(Fred Shuttlesworth)、约瑟夫·罗维利(Joseph Lowery)以及其他民权活动家创建了南方基督教领袖大会。该组织的成立旨在充分利用黑人教会的道德权威和组织能力来指导非暴力抵抗活动以促进民权改革。金生前一直担任南方基督教领袖大会的主席。[54]1957年南方基督教领袖大会在华盛顿特区举办“为了自由的祷告朝圣”(Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom),金在那里第一次面对全国观众发表演说。[55]
1958年9月20日,当金正在哈莱姆的布鲁姆斯坦百货商店(Blumstein's)签名售卖《奔向自由》(Stride Toward Freedom)一书,[56]一名黑人妇女将一把拆信刀刺进了金的胸膛,导致金险些丧命。这名妇女名叫艾佐拉·科里(Izola Curry)患有精神病,当时她认为金与共产党密谋陷害自己。紧急手术之后,金在医院休养了几周,而科里因为患有精神病不足以接受审判。[57][58]1959年,金出版了一本包含他佈道辞“什么是人?”(“What is Man?”)和“一个完整生命的特點”(The Dimensions of a Complete Life)的小册子《衡量人的标准》(The Measure of A Man)。他的佈道辞赞成人类需要上帝的爱,并批判了西方文明的种族不公正。[59]
哈利·瓦赫特尔(H.Wachtel)曾在一起关于报刊广告的诽谤诉讼案(纽约时报诉沙利文案)中与金的法律顾问克拉伦斯·B·琼斯(Clarence B. Jones)为南方基督教领袖大会的四位部长辩护。为了支付诉讼费用和以一种更加有效地筹款方式资助非暴力民权运动,哈利·瓦赫特尔建立了一个免税基金。这个基金会名叫“甘地人权协会”(G.Society for Human Rights),金担任其名誉主席。不满足于肯尼迪总统解决种族隔离问题的缓慢进度,金和甘地人权协会在1962年发出了一份文件呼吁肯尼迪总统紧跟亚伯拉罕·林肯总统的步伐,使用类似第二奴隶解放宣言的行政命令来给民权不平等以沉痛一击——然而肯尼迪总统并未照做。[60]
近一年的激烈运动并未取得明显的成效,民权运动开始恶化。于是金要求示威活动全面停止并实施“苦修日(英语:Day of Penance)”来促进非暴力抵抗和维护道德高地。黑人的内部分歧和地方政府精明低调的反应是运动失败的原因。[75]尽管奥尔巴尼运动给马丁·路德·金博士上了战术上的重要一课,[76]国家媒体依然极力指责金对运动失败负有很大责任,以及南方基督教领袖大会战果寥寥导致了南方基督教领袖大会与学生非暴力协调委员会的间隙日益增大。奥尔巴尼运动之后,金开始为南方基督教领袖大会选择參與自己能够控制局面的抵抗活动,而不是參與那些已存在的活動。[77]
伯明翰运动
主条目:伯明翰运动(英语:Birmingham campaign)
在伯明翰運動後被拘捕的金
1963年4月,南方基督教领袖大会(英语:SCLC)在阿拉巴马州的伯明翰发起了一场抵制种族隔离和经济不公正的抗议运动。这次运动虽然是非暴力的,但却部分使用了由怀亚特·沃克(英语:Wyatt Tee Walker)牧师发明的“故意对抗战术”。伯明翰的黑人们与南方基督教领袖大会一起组织在公共场所遊行和静坐示威,公然对抗他们认为不公平的法律。
1966年,南方的遊行示威活動已經取得了豐碩的成果,金、拜威爾和其他民權組織成員打算將運動擴大到北方,並將芝加哥定為第一個目的地。均來自中產階級家庭的金和拉爾夫·艾伯納西移居到芝加哥西區北朗德爾(N.Lawndale)貧民窟哈姆林大街1550號(1550 S. Hamlin Ave.)的一幢建築中[121],親身體驗窮人的生活來顯示他們對窮人的支持和同情。[122]
來到芝加哥的全國有色人種協進會與由阿爾伯特·拉比(Albert Raby)召集成立的受“芝加哥自由運動”扶持的當地民權組織聯合體(Coordinating Council of Community Organizations,芝加哥社區組織協調委員會)展開合作。[123]那年春天,一些白人夫婦和黑人夫婦測試了房產官員明目張膽的種族傾向:歧視性地區別對待收入、背景、孩子數量和其他特徵完全一致的幾對夫婦的住房需求。[124]此外他們還策劃並舉行了多次較大規模的遊行示威在:博根、貝爾蒙特克拉金、傑斐遜公園、長青公園(芝加哥西南部郊區)、蓋奇公園、馬凱特公園等地。[123][125][126]
艾伯納西后來寫到,抗議運動在芝加哥遭到比南部更激烈的抵制。有人朝遊行民眾投擲瓶子,大聲吼叫,特別是1966年8月5日的馬凱特公園游行遭到了嚴重的抵制。暴亂似乎一觸即發。[127][128]金的非暴力信仰阻止了他籌劃一起暴力事件,於是金與市長理查德·J·戴利(Richard J. Daley)談判,取消一次遊行以避免可能出現的暴動。[129]金在一次遊行中被磚塊擊中,但他依然不顧個人安危繼續領導遊行。[130]
参见:反對美國參與越南戰爭(英语:Opposition to the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War)
外部音频链接
馬丁·路德·金的《為何我反對越南戰爭》("Why I Am Opposed to the War in Vietnam")演講
金一直都反對美國捲入越南戰爭,但是一開始為了避免因為批判約翰遜總統的政策而干擾民權運動成果,金在公共場合迴避越戰問題。[133]但是,隨著越來越多的美國民眾反對越南戰爭,在助手詹姆斯·拜威爾的敦促下[133],金最終公開表明了自己的反戰立場。[133]1967年4月4日(整整一年以後,金被刺殺身亡),金現身紐約河畔教堂公開發表名為“越南背后:打破沉默的时刻(英语:Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence)”(Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence)的反戰演說。[134]金強烈譴責美國攻打越南,認為美國此舉是“為了佔領越南作為美國殖民地”[135]並把美國政府稱為“當今世界最大的暴力供應商”。[136]金還將越戰與經濟不公平聯繫起來,指出美國需要嚴峻的道德變革:
這篇名為“越南背後”的演講反映了金後期的政治主張的演變,這與他所屬的高地研究與教育中心(Highlander Research and Education Center)的教學是並行不悖的。[145][146]金開始談及美國政治經濟生活亟待根本變革,也更加頻繁地表達自己的反戰立場以及渴望看到資源重新分配以改變種族和經濟不公平。[147]在公共場合,金小心翼翼地措辭以防敵人把他和共產主義聯繫起來,但是私底下,金經常說到他支持民主社會主義。[148]1952年金寫給妻子科麗塔的一封信中,金說:“我想你已經知道了我的經濟理論更傾向社會主義,而非資本主義……”[148]在一次演講時,金說“資本主義的一些東西是錯誤的……一定有一種更好的分配方式,或許美國應該轉向民主社會主義”。[149]在莫爾豪斯學院時,金就閱讀了馬克思的著作,雖然金排斥“傳統的資本主義”,他也不認同共產主義,因為共產主義的“歷史唯物主義解釋”否認宗教,以及其“倫理相對主義”和“政治極權主義”。[150]
在窮人運動之前,金在自己最後一本書《我們前往何方:混亂還是和諧?》(Where Do We Go from Here: Chaos or Community?)中陳述瞭解決社會問題和貧困問題的觀點,特別支持基本保障收入的做法。[159][160][161]窮人運動以華盛頓特區遊行告終,要求美國政府對最貧困的社區提供經濟援助。
馬丁·路德·金去世兩個月後,嫌疑犯詹姆斯·厄爾·雷在倫敦希思羅機場被捕,當時他試圖離開英國,前往白人統治的羅德西亞。[189]當時他持有假的加拿大護照,化名為雷蒙·喬治·斯尼德(Ramon George Sneyd)。雷很快被引渡到田納西州,被控謀殺馬丁·路德·金。他在1969年3月10日承認殺害馬丁·路德·金,但三天後,他否認了自己的供述。[190]雷接受律師珀西·福爾曼的意見,承認犯罪,避免被判處死刑的可能性。雷最後被判處有期徒刑99年。[190][191]後來詹姆斯·厄爾·雷聲稱實行此次暗殺的是他曾在魁北克蒙特利爾認識的一個別名為拉烏爾(Raoul)的男人,並說暗殺是一場陰謀。[192][193]雷耗盡餘生試圖撤回認罪協議爭取再審,但都失敗了。[191]
拉爾夫·艾伯納西在他1989年出版的自傳《隔離之牆轟然倒塌》(And the Walls Came Tumbling Down)中寫道“女人是金的弱點”,儘管他們都“理解並信仰聖經禁止婚外性行為。但是金當時確實很艱難,無法抵抗誘惑”。[221]在後來的採訪中,艾伯納西表示他只是用了“風流”一詞,並沒有明確地說金有婚外性行為,而且金和其他女人來往是情感上的,而不是性的。[222]艾伯納西批評媒體炒作他關於金婚外情的說法,[222]比如說媒體說他在書中承認金在被刺殺前一晚還發生了一夜情。[222]而艾伯納西書中的原意是第二天早晨醒來時他看到金和一個女人一起從房間裡出來,還說“他可能和那個女人討論和辯論事情,想勸她加入運動。我並不知實情。”[222]
大衛·蓋洛在1986年出版的《耶穌受難記》(Bearing the Cross)中提到了金的很多次婚外情,其中一件是與金幾乎每天見到的一個女人發生的。據蓋洛說,“他們的關係……漸漸發展成了金生活的情感核心,但是金在旅行中還偶爾和別的女人發生關係。”蓋洛還說金把婚外情當成“減少焦慮的一種方式”。蓋洛聲稱,金的濫交讓他自己“很痛苦,有時候極其內疚”。[223]金的妻子科麗塔看似對金的婚外情安之若素,曾說“他和其他女人的婚外情,在我們兩人高層次的世界裡,不值一提。”[224]《耶穌受難記》(Bearing the Cross)發行後不久,民權作家豪威爾·萊恩斯給予了此書積極的評價,但是對於蓋洛所說的金的性生活,他認為是“聳人聽聞的”並指出蓋洛只是“堆砌而不是分析事實”。[225]
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^The Martin Luther King Jr. Research and Education Institute. Why Jesus Called A Man A Fool (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆). Delivered at Mount Pisgah Missionary Baptist Church, Chicago, Illinois, on 27 August 1967.
^The Huffington Post. 2013. 'A Gift Of Love': Martin Luther King's Sermons From Strength To Love (EXCERPT) (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆).
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^King, Jr., Martin Luther. Carson, Clayborne; Holloran, Peter; Luker, Ralph; Russell, Penny A. , 编. The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr: Symbol of the Movement, January 1957 – December 1958. University of California Press. 2000: 364 [2015-02-26]. ISBN 978-0-520-22231-1. (原始内容于2015-03-15).
^King, Jr., Martin Luther. Carson, Clayborne; Holloran, Peter; Luker, Ralph; Russell, Penny A. , 编. The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr: Symbol of the Movement, January 1957 – December 1958. University of California Press. 2000: 84 [2015-02-26]. ISBN 978-0-520-22231-1. (原始内容于2018-01-19).
^King, Jr., Martin Luther. Carson, Clayborne; Holloran, Peter; Luker, Ralph; Russell, Penny A. , 编. The papers of Martin Luther King, Jr.. University of California Press. 1992: 384 [2015-02-26]. ISBN 978-0-520-07951-9. (原始内容于2015-03-15).
^King, Jr., Martin Luther; Carson, Clayborne. The Autobiography of Martin Luther King, Jr.. Hachette Digital. 1998: 187 [2015-02-26]. ISBN 978-0-446-52412-4. (原始内容于2015-03-15).
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^Marable, Manning; Mullings, Leith. Let Nobody Turn Us Around: Voices of Resistance, Reform, and Renewal: an African American Anthology. Rowman & Littlefield. 2000: 391–2. ISBN 0-8476-8346-X.
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^Pearson, Hugh (2002). When Harlem Nearly Killed King: The 1958 Stabbing of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Seven Stories Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-1-58322-614-8.
^Graham, Renee. . The Boston Globe. – 通过HighBeam Research . 2002-02-04 [2013-01-20]. (原始内容存档于2013-05-14).
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^Schofield, Norman. Architects of Political Change: Constitutional Quandaries and Social Choice Theory. Cambridge University Press. 2006: 189. ISBN 0-521-83202-0.
^Shafritz, Jay M. International Encyclopedia of Public Policy and Administration. Westview Press. 1998: 1242. ISBN 0-8133-9974-2.
^Loevy, Robert D.; Humphrey, Hubert H.; Stewart, John G. The Civil Rights Act of 1964: The Passage of the Law that Ended Racial Segregation. SUNY Press. 1997: 337. ISBN 0-7914-3361-7.
^Bobbitt, David. The Rhetoric of Redemption: Kenneth Burke's Redemption Drama and Martin Luther King, Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" Speech. Rowman & Littlefield. 2007: 105. ISBN 0-7425-2928-2.
^Ling, Peter J. Martin Luther King, Jr. Routledge. 2002: 250–1. ISBN 0-415-21664-8.
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^King, Martin Luther. A Testament of Hope: The Essential Writings and Speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr.. Harper Collins. 1990: 105. ISBN 978-0-06-064691-2.
^Remembering Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.:Gun Fire 45 Years Ago Kills Man that Billy Graham Considered a Friend (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) Billy Graham.com, April 4, 2013, accessed September 15, 2014
^King Center:Billy Graham (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) Accessed September 15, 2014
^McWhorter, Diane. Two Mayors and a King. Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama: The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution. Simon and Schuster. 2001 [2015-02-26]. ISBN 978-0-7432-2648-6. (原始内容于2015-03-15).
^ 80.080.1Harrell, David Edwin; Gaustad, Edwin S.; Miller, Randall M.; Boles, John B.; Woods, Randall Bennett; Griffith, Sally Foreman. Unto a Good Land: A History of the American People, Volume 2. Wm B Eerdmans Publishing. 2005: 1055. ISBN 0-8028-2945-7.
^Birmingham USA: Look at Them Run. 《新闻周刊》. 1963-05-13: 27.
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^ 84.084.184.2King, Martin Luther. Letter from Birmingham Jail. The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute. 1963-04-16 [2012-08-22]. (原始内容存档于2013-01-09). King began writing the letter on newspaper margins and continued on bits of paper brought by friends.
^Augustine.com - "Black History: Dr. Robert B. Hayling" (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) ; David J. Garrow, Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (Harper Collins, 1987) p 316-318
^Jones, Maxine D.; McCarthy, Kevin M. African Americans in Florida: An Illustrated History. Pineapple Press. 1993: 113–5. ISBN 1-56164-031-X.
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^Haley, Alex. Martin Luther King. Interview (Playboy). January 1965 [2012-06-10]. (原始内容存档于2013-01-09).
^The Selma Injunction. Civil Rights Movement Veterans. [2008-09-08]. (原始内容存档于2013-01-09).
^El Naggar, Mona. Found After Decades, a Forgotten Tape of King ‘Thinking on His Feet’. The New York Times. 2013-08-22 [2013-08-31]. (原始内容于2013-11-05).
^Gates, Henry Louis; Appiah, Anthony. Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. Basic Civitas Books. 1999: 1251. ISBN 0-465-00071-1.
^Cashman, Sean Dennis. African-Americans and the Quest for Civil Rights, 1900–1990. NYU Press. 1991: 162. ISBN 0-8147-1441-2.
^Schlesinger, Jr., Arthur M. Robert Kennedy and His Times. Houghton Mifflin Books. 2002: 351 [1978]. ISBN 0-618-21928-5.
^Marable, Manning. Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America, 1945–1990. Univ. Press of Mississippi. 1991: 74. ISBN 0-87805-493-6.
^Rosenberg, Jonathan; Karabell, Zachary. Kennedy, Johnson, and the Quest for Justice: The Civil Rights Tapes. WW Norton & Co. 2003: 130. ISBN 0-393-05122-6.
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^ 100.0100.1Boggs, Grace Lee. Living for Change: An Autobiography. U of Minnesota Press. 1998: 127. ISBN 0-8166-2955-2.
^Aron, Paul. Mysteries in History: From Prehistory to the Present. ABC-CLIO. 2005: 399. ISBN 1-85109-899-2.
^Singleton, Carl; Wildin, Rowena. The Sixties in America. Salem Press. 1999: 454. ISBN 0-89356-982-8.
^Bennett, Scott H. Radical Pacifism: The War Resisters League and Gandhian Nonviolence in America, 1915–1963. Syracuse University Press. 2003: 225. ISBN 0-8156-3003-4.
^Davis, Danny. Celebrating the Birthday and Public Holiday for Martin Luther King, Jr. Congressional Record (Library of Congress). 2007-01-16 [2011-07-11]. (原始内容存档于2013-01-09).
^ 105.0105.1Powers, Roger S.; Vogele, William B.; Kruegler, Christopher; McCarthy, Ronald M. Protest, power, and change: an encyclopedia of nonviolent action from ACT-UP to Women's Suffrage. Taylor & Francis. 1997: 313. ISBN 0-8153-0913-9.
^Younge, Gary. I have a dream. The Guardian. 2003-08-21 [2013-01-09]. (原始内容存档于2013-01-09).
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^King, Martin Luther; King, Coretta Scott. The Words of Martin Luther King, Jr.: Second Edition. Newmarket Press. 2008: 95. ISBN 978-1-55704-815-8.
^Isserman, Maurice; Kazin, Michael. America Divided: The Civil War of the 1960s. Oxford University Pressk. 2000: 175. ISBN 0-19-509190-6.
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^ 119.0119.1Theodore Parker And The 'Moral Universe'. National Public Radio. 2010-09-02 [2013-01-24]. (原始内容存档于2013-01-24).
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^North Lawndale. Encyclopedia. Chicago History. [2008-09-08]. (原始内容存档于2013-01-09).
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^ 123.0123.1Ralph, James. Northern Protest: Martin Luther King, Jr., Chicago, and the Civil Rights Movement. Harvard University Press. 1993: 1. ISBN 0-674-62687-7.
^Cohen 2000,第347頁. sfn error: no target: CITEREFCohen2000 (help)
^Cohen 2000,第416頁. sfn error: no target: CITEREFCohen2000 (help)
^Fairclough, Adam. To Redeem the Soul of America: The Southern Christian Leadership Conference & Martin Luther King, Jr.. University of Georgia Press. 1987: 299. ISBN 0-8203-2346-2.
^Baty, Chris. Chicago: City Guide. Lonely Planet. 2004: 52. ISBN 1-74104-032-9.
^Stone, Eddie. Jesse Jackson. Holloway House Publishing. 1988: 59–60. ISBN 0-87067-840-X.
^Lentz, Richard. Symbols, the News Magazines, and Martin Luther King. LSU Press. 1990: 230. ISBN 0-8071-2524-5.
^Isserman, Maurice; Kazin, Michael. America Divided: The Civil War of the 1960s. Oxford University Press. 2000: 200. ISBN 0-19-509190-6. See also: Miller, Keith D. Voice of Deliverance: The Language of Martin Luther King, Jr., and Its Sources. University of Georgia Press. 1998: 139. ISBN 0-8203-2013-7.
^Mis, Melody S. Meet Martin Luther King, Jr. Rosen Publishing Group. 2008: 20. ISBN 1-4042-4209-0.
^Slessarev, Helene. The Betrayal of the Urban Poor. Temple University Press. 1997: 140. ISBN 1-56639-543-7.
^Baldwin, Lewis V. To Make the Wounded Whole: The Cultural Legacy of Martin Luther King, Jr. Fortress Press. 1992: 273. ISBN 0-8006-2543-9.
^Long, Michael G. Against Us, But for Us: Martin Luther King, Jr. and the State. Mercer University Press. 2002: 199. ISBN 0-86554-768-8.
^ 141.0141.1Dyson, Michael Eric. Facing Death. April 4, 1968: Martin Luther King, Jr.'s death and how it changed America. Basic Civitas Books. 2008. ISBN 978-0-465-00212-2.
^David J. Garrow, Bearing the Cross (1986), pp. 440, 445.
^ 143.0143.1Pierre, Robert E. Martin Luther King Jr. made our nation uncomfortable. The Washington Post. 2011-10-16 [2012-08-17]. (原始内容于2012-04-11).
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^Harding, James M.; Rosenthal, Cindy. Restaging the Sixties: Radical Theaters and Their Legacies. University of Michigan Press. 2006: 297. ISBN 0-472-06954-3.
^Lentz, Richard. Symbols, the News Magazines, and Martin Luther King. LSU Press. 1990: 64. ISBN 0-8071-2524-5.
^Sturm, Douglas. "Martin Luther King, Jr., as Democratic Socialist." (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) The Journal of Religious Ethics, 18, no. 2 (1990): 79-105. Retrieved March 11, 2014.
^ 148.0148.1Obery M. Hendricks, Jr., Ph.D. (January 20, 2014). The Uncompromising Anti-Capitalism of Martin Luther King Jr. (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) The Huffington Post. Retrieved January 21, 2014.
^Franklin, Robert Michael. Liberating Visions: Human Fulfillment and Social Justice in African-American Thought. Fortress Press. 1990: 125. ISBN 0-8006-2392-4.
^King, Jr., Martin Luther; King, Coretta Scott; King, Dexter Scott. The Martin Luther King, Jr. Companion: Quotations from the Speeches, Essays, and Books of Martin Luther King, Jr. St. Martin's Press. 1998: 39. ISBN 0-312-19990-2.
^ 151.0151.1151.2Zinn, Howard. The Power of Nonviolence: Writings by Advocates of Peace. Beacon Press. 2002: 122–123. ISBN 0-8070-1407-9.
^1967 Year In Review. United Press International. [2010-11-30]. (原始内容存档于2013-01-04).
^ 153.0153.1Alexander Remington. "The Rev. James L. Bevel dies at 72; civil rights activist and top lieutenant to King". 洛杉磯時報. 2008-12-24 [2015-02-27]. (原始内容于2015-01-10) (英语).
^ 154.0154.1Martin L. King on hippies (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), A Testament of Hope: The Essential Writings and Speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr., Accessed September 15, 2014
^ 156.0156.1Robinson, Douglas. Dr. King Calls for Antiwar Rally in Capital February 5–6. The New York Times. 1968-01-13: 4 [2010-04-22]. (原始内容于2011-06-05).
^Vigil, Ernesto B. The Crusade for Justice: Chicano Militancy and the Government's War on Dissent. University of Wisconsin Press. 1999: 54. ISBN 0-299-16224-9.
^ 158.0158.1Kick, Russell. You are Being Lied to: The Disinformation Guide to Media Distortion, Historical Whitewashes and Cultural Myths. The Disinformation Campaign. 2001: 1991. ISBN 0-9664100-7-6.
^. The Progress Report. 2007-01-09 [2015-02-04]. (原始内容存档于2015-02-04).
^Yglesias, Matthew. Martin Luther King's Case for a Guaranteed Basic Income. Slate. 2013-08-28 [2015-01-20]. (原始内容于2015-01-20).
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^Isserman, Maurice. The Other American: The Life of Michael Harrington. Public Affairs. 2001: 281. ISBN 1-58648-036-7.
^McKnight, Gerald D. 'The Poor People Are Coming!' 'The Poor People Are Coming!'. The last crusade: Martin Luther King, Jr., the FBI, and the poor people's campaign. Westview Press. 1998. ISBN 0-8133-3384-9.
^Engler, Mark. Dr. Martin Luther King's Economics: Through Jobs, Freedom. The Nation. 2010-01-15 [2012-07-19]. (原始内容存档于2013-01-09).
^. AFSCME. February 1968 [2012-01-16]. (原始内容存档于2006-11-02).
^. AFSCME. March 1968 [2012-01-16]. (原始内容存档于2006-11-02).
^ Davis, Townsend. Weary Feet, Rested Souls: A Guided History of the Civil Rights Movement. WW Norton & Co. 1998: 364. ISBN 0-393-31819-2.
^Thomas, Evan. The Worst Week of 1968. Newsweek: 2. 2007-11-19 [2008-08-27]. (原始内容于2008-10-10).
^Montefiore, Simon Sebag. Speeches that Changed the World: The Stories and Transcripts of the Moments that Made History. Quercus. 2006: 155. ISBN 1-905204-16-7.
^King V. Jowers Conspiracy Allegations. United States Department of Justice Investigation of Recent Allegations Regarding the Assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. U.S. Department of Justice. June 2000 [2011-07-11]. (原始内容于2013-01-13).
^Pilkington, Ed. 40 years after King's death, Jackson hails first steps into promised land. The Guardian. 2008-04-03 [2008-06-11]. (原始内容于2008-06-12).
^Garner, Joe; Cronkite, Walter; Kurtis, Bill. We Interrupt This Broadcast: The Events that Stopped Our Lives ... from the Hindenburg Explosion to the Attacks of September 11. Sourcebooks. 2002: 62. ISBN 1-57071-974-8.
^Pepper, William. An Act of State: The Execution of Martin Luther King. Verso. 2003: 159. ISBN 1-85984-695-5.
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^Purnick, Joyce. Koch Says Jackson Lied About Actions After Dr. King Was Slain. The New York Times. 1988-04-18 [2008-06-11]. (原始内容存档于2013-01-04).
^Lokos, Lionel. House Divided: The Life and Legacy of Martin Luther King. Arlington House. 1968: 48.
^Citizen King Transcript. PBS. [2008-06-12]. (原始内容存档于2013-01-04).
^1968: Martin Luther King shot dead. On this Day (BBC). 1968-04-04 [2008-08-27]. (原始内容于2013-03-26).|year=与|date=不匹配 (帮助)
^Risen, Clay. A Nation on Fire: America in the Wake of the King Assassination. John Wiley & Sons. 2009. ISBN 0-470-17710-1.
^Klein, Joe (2006). Politics Lost: How American Democracy was Trivialized by People Who Think You're Stupid. New York: Doubleday. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-385-51027-1
^ 182.0182.11968 Year In Review. United Press International. [2010-11-30]. (原始内容存档于2013-01-09).
^. AFSCME The Public Employee. April 1968 [2012-01-16]. (原始内容存档于2006-11-02).
^Manheimer, Ann S. Martin Luther King Jr.: Dreaming of Equality. Twenty-First Century Books. 2004: 97. ISBN 1-57505-627-5.
^Dickerson, James. Dixie's Dirty Secret: The True Story of how the Government, the Media, and the Mob Conspired to Combat Immigration and the Vietnam Antiwar Movement. ME Sharpe. 1998: 169. ISBN 0-7656-0340-3.
^Hatch, Jane M.; Douglas, George William. The American Book of Days. Wilson. 1978: 321.
^King, Jr., Martin Luther. Dream: The Words and Inspiration of Martin Luther King, Jr. Blue Mountain Arts. 2007: 26. ISBN 1-59842-240-5.
^Werner, Craig. A Change is Gonna Come: Music, Race & the Soul of America. University of Michigan Press. 2006: 9. ISBN 0-472-03147-3.
^Ling, Peter J. Martin Luther King, Jr. Routledge. 2002: 296. ISBN 0-415-21664-8.
^ 190.0190.1Flowers, R. Barri; Flowers, H. Loraine. Murders in the United States: Crimes, Killers And Victims Of The Twentieth Century. McFarland. 2004: 38. ISBN 0-7864-2075-8.
^ 191.0191.1191.2191.3James Earl Ray Dead At 70. CBS. 1998-04-23 [2008-06-12]. (原始内容存档于2013-01-09).
^House Select Committee on Assassinations. Compilation of the Statements of James Earl Ray: Staff Report. The Minerva Group. 2001: 17. ISBN 0-89875-297-3.
^ 193.0193.1 Davis, Lee. Assassination: 20 Assassinations that Changed the World. JG Press. 1995: 105. ISBN 1-57215-235-4.
^From small-time criminal to notorious assassin. CNN. 1998 [2006-09-17]. (原始内容存档于2013-01-09).
^Knight, Peter. Conspiracy Theories in American History: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. 2003: 402. ISBN 1-57607-812-4.
^ 196.0196.1196.2196.3James Polk. The case against James Earl Ray. CNN. 2008-12-29 [2014-07-12]. (原始内容于2014-07-14).
^Questions left hanging by James Earl Ray's death. BBC. 1998-04-23 [2008-08-27]. (原始内容于2009-01-12).
^Frank, Gerold. An American Death: The True Story of the Assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Greatest Manhunt of our Time. Doubleday. 1972: 283.
^Trial Transcript Volume XIV. The King Center. [2008-08-27]. (原始内容于2008-05-06).
^Sack, Kevin; Yellin, Emily. Dr. King's Slaying Finally Draws A Jury Verdict, but to Little Effect. The New York Times. 1999-12-10 [2013-01-20]. (原始内容存档于2013-01-20).
^Smith, Robert Charles; Seltzer, Richard. Contemporary Controversies and the American Racial Divide. Rowman & Littlefield. 2000: 97. ISBN 0-7425-0025-X.
^Overview. United States Department of Justice Investigation of Recent Allegations Regarding the Assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. U.S. Department of Justice. June 2000 [2011-07-11]. (原始内容存档于2013-01-09).
^Washingtonpost.com: Martin Luther King Jr.: The Legacy. The Washington Post. 1999-01-30 [2015-02-26]. (原始内容于2015-09-04).
^Loyd Jowers, 73, Who Claimed A Role in the Killing of Dr. King. The New York Times. 2000-05-23 [2015-02-26]. (原始内容于2014-12-17).
^Canedy, Dana. A Minister Says His Father, Now Dead, Killed Dr. King. The New York Times. 2002-04-05 [2015-02-26]. (原始内容于2015-01-14).
^Sargent, Frederic O. The Civil Rights Revolution: Events and Leaders, 1955–1968. McFarland. 2004: 129. ISBN 0-7864-1914-8.
^ 208.0208.1Branch, Taylor. At Canaan's Edge: America in the King Years, 1965–68. Simon & Schuster. 2006: 770. ISBN 978-0-684-85712-1.
^Goodman, Amy; Gonzalez, Juan. Jesse Jackson On 'Mad Dean Disease', the 2000 Elections and Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King. Democracy Now!. 2004-01-15 [2006-09-18]. (原始内容于2018-02-19).
^ 210.0210.1Honey, Michael K. Standing at the Crossroads. Going down Jericho Road the Memphis strike, Martin Luther King's last campaign 1. Norton. 2007. ISBN 978-0-393-04339-6. Hoover developed a round-the-clock surveillance campaign aimed at destroying King.
^Wilson, Sondra K. In Search of Democracy: The NAACP Writings of James Weldon Johnson, Walter White, and Roy Wilkins (1920–1977). Oxford University Press. 1999: 466. ISBN 0-19-511633-X.
^Phillips, Geraldine N. Documenting the Struggle for Racial Equality in the Decade of the Sixties. Prologue (The National Archives and Records Administration). Summer 1997 [2008-06-15]. (原始内容于2008-03-27).
^Eyewitness to Murder: The King Assassination Featured Individuals. Black in America. CNN. [2008-06-16]. (原始内容存档于2012-09-06).
^McKnight, Gerald. The Last Crusade: Martin Luther King, Jr., the FBI, and the Poor People's Crusade. Westview Press. 1998: 76. ISBN 0-8133-3384-9.
^Martin Luther King, Jr.: The FBI Files. Filiquarian Publishing. 2007: 40–2. ISBN 1-59986-253-0. See also: Polk, James. King conspiracy theories still thrive 40 years later. CNN. 2008-04-07 [2008-06-16]. (原始内容于2012-11-10). and King's FBI file Part 1 of 2 (PDF). FBI. [2012-01-16]. (原始内容于2011-10-26). and King's FBI file Part 2 of 2 (PDF). FBI. [2012-01-16]. (原始内容于2011-10-27).
^Knight, Peter. Conspiracy Theories in American History: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. 2003: 408–9. ISBN 1-57607-812-4.
^ 237.0237.1. U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. [2012-04-19]. (原始内容存档于2012-03-27).
^Ansell, Gwen. Soweto Blues: Jazz, Popular Music, and Politics in South Africa. Continuum International Publishing Group. 2005: 139. ISBN 0-8264-1753-1.
^Clinton, Hillary Rodham. It Takes a Village: And Other Lessons Children Teach Us. Simon & Schuster. 2007: 137. ISBN 1-4165-4064-4.
^SCLC Press Release. SCLC via the King Center. 1966-05-16 [2012-08-31]. (原始内容存档于2013-01-09).
^Did You Know That Martin Luther King Won A GRAMMY?. GRAMMY.com. 2019-01-17 [2019-01-21]. (原始内容于2020-04-26) (英语).
^Carter, Jimmy. Presidential Medal of Freedom Remarks on Presenting the Medal to Dr. Jonas E. Salk and to Martin Luther King, Jr.. The American Presidency Project. 1977-07-11 [2013-01-04]. (原始内容存档于2013-01-04).
^Congressional Gold Medal Recipients (1776 to Present). Office of the Clerk: U.S. House of Representatives. [2008-06-16]. (原始内容于2010-05-11).
^Gallup, George; Gallup, Jr., Alec. The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion 1999. Rowman & Littlefield. 2000: 249. ISBN 0-8420-2699-1.
^Harpaz, Beth J. . – 通过HighBeam Research . Associated Press. 1999-12-27 [2013-01-20]. (原始内容存档于2013-05-14).
^Alderman, Derek H. Naming Streets for Martin Luther King, Jr.: No Easy Road (PDF). Landscape and Race in the United States. Routledge Press. 2006-02-13 [2011-07-04]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2008-06-24).
^King County Was Rededicated For MLK. The Seattle Times. 1998-01-18 [2008-06-13]. (原始内容于2009-01-14). See also: New logo is an image of civil rights leader. King County. [2008-06-13]. (原始内容于2008-09-25).
^Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Essay Competition Winners Announced. City of Harrisburg. 2003-01-19 [2008-08-27]. (原始内容于2007-12-07).
^Washington, DC Martin Luther King Jr. National Memorial Project Foundation Breaks Ground On Historic $100 Million Memorial On The National Mall In Washington, D.C.. Washington, DC Martin Luther King, Jr. National Memorial Project Foundation. 2006-11-06 [2008-08-27]. (原始内容存档于2012-09-08).
^Tobias, Randall L. Celebrating the Birthday of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.. U.S. Department of State. 2007-01-18 [2012-01-16]. (原始内容于2007-11-15).
^Tavernise, Sabrina. A Dream Fulfilled, Martin Luther King Memorial Opens. New York Times. 2011-08-23 [2015-02-26]. (原始内容存档于2013-01-04).
^Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial. National Park Service. [2013-01-04]. (原始内容存档于2013-01-04).
^Guevara, Brittni. FYIDC: Paying Tribute To Dr. King. Washington Life. 2011-07-26 [2013-01-20]. (原始内容于2012-12-31).
^Labrecque, Jeff. 'The Butler': The new trailer showcases Oscar-winning actors tackling history – VIDEO. PopWatch (column) (Entertainment Weekly). 2013-05-08 [2013-05-10]. (原始内容于2013-05-26).
^Kit, Borys. Lee Daniels' 'Selma' finds its King. The Hollywood Reporter. [2014-06-03]. (原始内容于2015-07-15).
^Fleming, Mike. Anthony Mackie To Play MLK Opposite Bryan's Cranston's LBJ In HBO's 'All the Way'. Deadline Hollywood. 2015-06-30 [2020-07-19]. (原始内容于2020-07-20).
^Morrison, Robert. If I can dream: The Elvis tribute to Martin Luther King, Jr.. The Conversation. [2021-10-10]. (原始内容于2021-11-09) (英语).
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