加拉帕戈斯象龜

加拉巴哥象龜（學名：Chelonoidis nigra）是現存體型最大的陸龜之一。為厄瓜多加拉巴哥群島特有。成年象龜身長1.5 米(4.9呎)，平均体重达到175公斤，最高纪录为400公斤(880磅)，在爬虫类中列第13位。野外寿命超过100年。2006年6月23日在澳洲動物園因心臟衰竭病逝的大象龜哈麗，估計享年約175歲，病逝前為世上最長壽的存活動物。

加拉帕戈斯象龜
棲息於聖克魯茲島上的加拉巴哥象龜。
保护状况
易危（IUCN 3.1）
科学分类
界：	动物界 Animalia
门：	脊索动物门 Chordata
纲：	爬行綱 Reptilia
目：	龜鱉目 Testudines
亚目：	曲颈龟亚目 Cryptodira
科：	陸龜科 Testudinidae
属：	南美象龜屬 Chelonoidis
种：	加拉帕戈斯象龜 C. nigra
二名法
Chelonoidis nigra (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824b^[1])
亞種
†平塔岛象龟 C. n. abingdoni (Günther, 1877)^[2] C. n. becki (Rothschild, 1901) C. n. chathamensis (Van Denburgh, 1907)^[3] C. n. darwini (Van Denburgh, 1907)^[3] C. n. duncanensis (Garman, 1917)^[4] C. n. hoodensis (Van Denburgh, 1907)^[3] †C. n. nigra (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824b)^[1] †C. n. phantastica (Van Denburgh, 1907)^[3] C. n. porteri (Rothschild, 1903)^[5] C. n. vicina (Günther, 1875)^[6]
異名^[15]
亞種異名^[7] Testudo californiana Quoy & Gaimard, 1824a (nomen oblitum) Testudo nigra Quoy & Gaimard, 1824b^[1](nomen novum) Testudo elephantopus Harlan, 1827 (nomen dubium) Testudo nigrita Duméril and Bibron, 1834 (nomen dubium) Testudo planiceps Gray, 1853^[8](nomen dubium) Testudo clivosa Garman, 1917^[4](nomen dubium) Testudo typica Garman, 1917^[4](nomen dubium) Testudo (Chelonoidis) elephantopus Williams, 1952^[9] Geochelone (Chelonoidis) elephantopus Pritchard, 1967^[10] Chelonoidis elephantopus Bour, 1980^[11] 亞種異名 (概要)^[12] C. n. nigra (指名亞種) Testudo californiana Quoy & Gaimard, 1824a (nomen oblitum) Testudo nigra Quoy & Gaimard, 1824b^[1](nomen novum) Testudo galapagoensis Baur 1889^[13] C. n. abingdoni Testudo ephippium Günther, 1875^[6](partim, misidentified type specimen once erroneously attributed to what is now C. n. duncanensis) Testudo abingdoni Günther, 1877^[2] C. n. becki Testudo becki Rothschild, 1901 C. n. chathamensis Testudo wallacei Rothschild 1902 (partim, nomen dubium) Testudo chathamensis Van Denburgh, 1907^[3] C. n. darwini Testudo wallacei Rothschild 1902 (partim, nomen dubium) Testudo darwini Van Denburgh, 1907^[3] C. n. duncanensis Testudo ephippium Günther, 1875^[6](partim, misidentified type) Geochelone nigra duncanensis Garman, 1917^[4]in Pritchard, 1996^[7](nomen nudum) C. n. hoodensis Testudo hoodensis Van Denburgh, 1907^[3] C. n. phantastica Testudo phantasticus Van Denburgh, 1907^[3] C. n. porteri Testudo nigrita Duméril and Bibron, 1834 (nomen dubium) Testudo porteri Rothschild, 1903^[5] C. n. vicina Testudo microphyes Günther, 1875^[6] Testudo vicina Günther, 1875^[6] Testudo güntheri Baur, 1889^[13] Testudo macrophyes Garman, 1917^[4] Testudo vandenburghi De Sola, R. 1930^[14](nomen nudum) 亞種異名 (全部)^[15] Chelonoidis nigra nigra Testudo nigra Quoy & Gaimard, 1824 Testudo californiana Quoy & Gaimard, 1824 Testudo galapagoensis Baur, 1889 Testudo elephantopus galapagoensis Mertens & Wermuth, 1955 Geochelone elephantopus galapagoensis Pritchard, 1967 Chelonoidis galapagoensis Bour, 1980 Chelonoidis nigra Bour, 1985 Chelonoidis elephantopus galapagoensis Obst, 1985 Geochelone nigra Pritchard, 1986 Geochelone nigra nigra Stubbs, 1989 Chelonoidis nigra galapagoensis David, 1994 Chelonoidis nigra nigra David, 1994 Geochelone elephantopus nigra Bonin, Devaux & Dupré, 1996 Testudo california Paull, 1998 (ex errore) Testudo californianana Paull, 1999 (ex errore) Chelonoidis nigra abingdonii Testudo ephippium Günther, 1875 Testudo abingdonii Günther, 1877 Testudo abingdoni Van Denburgh, 1914 (ex errore) Testudo elephantopus abingdonii Mertens & Wermuth, 1955 Testudo elephantopus ephippium Mertens & Wermuth, 1955 Geochelone abingdonii Pritchard, 1967 Geochelone elephantopus abingdoni Pritchard, 1967 Geochelone elephantopus ephippium Pritchard, 1967 Geochelone ephippium Pritchard, 1967 Chelonoidis abingdonii Bour, 1980 Chelonoidis ephippium Bour, 1980 Geochelone elephantopus abingdonii Groombridge, 1982 Geochelone abingdoni Fritts, 1983 Geochelone epphipium Fritts, 1983 (ex errore) Chelonoidis nigra ephippium Pritchard, 1984 Chelonoidis elephantopus abingdoni Obst, 1985 Chelonoidis elephantopus ephippium Obst, 1985 Geochelone nigra abingdoni Stubbs, 1989 Chelonoidis nigra abingdonii David, 1994 Chelonoidis elephantopus abingdonii Rogner, 1996 Chelonoidis nigra abingdoni Bonin, Devaux & Dupré, 1996 Chelonoidis nigra abdingdonii Obst, 1996 (ex errore) Geochelone abdingdonii Obst, 1996 Geochelone nigra abdingdoni Obst, 1996 (ex errore) Geochelone nigra ephyppium Caccone, Gibbs, Ketmaier, Suatoni & Powell, 1999 (ex errore) Chelonoidis nigra ahingdonii Artner, 2003 (ex errore) Chelonoidis abingdoni Joseph-Ouni, 2004 Chelonoidis nigra becki Testudo becki Rothschild, 1901 Testudo bedsi Heller, 1903 (ex errore) Geochelone becki Pritchard, 1967 Geochelone elephantopus becki Pritchard, 1967 Chelonoidis becki Bour, 1980 Chelonoidis elephantopus becki Obst, 1985 Chelonoidis nigra beckii David, 1994 (ex errore) Chelonoidis elephantopus beckii Rogner, 1996 Chelonoidis nigra becki Obst, 1996 Chelonoidis nigra chathamensis Testudo wallacei Rothschild, 1902 Testudo chathamensis Van Denburgh, 1907 Testudo elephantopus chathamensis Mertens & Wermuth, 1955 Testudo elephantopus wallacei Mertens & Wermuth, 1955 Testudo chatamensis Slevin & Leviton, 1956 (ex errore) Geochelone chathamensis Pritchard, 1967 Geochelone elephantopus chathamensis Pritchard, 1967 Geochelone elephantopus wallacei Pritchard, 1967 Geochelone wallacei Pritchard, 1967 Chelonoidis chathamensis Bour, 1980 Chelonoidis elephantopus chathamensis Obst, 1985 Chelonoidis elephantopus wallacei Obst, 1985 Chelonoidis elephantopus chatamensis Gosławski & Hryniewicz, 1993 Chelonoidis nigra chathamensis David, 1994 Chelonoidis nigra wallacei Bonin, Devaux & Dupré, 1996 Geochelone cathamensis Obst, 1996 (ex errore) Geochelone elephantopus chatamensis Paull, 1996 Testudo chathamensis chathamensis Pritchard, 1998 Cherlonoidis nigra wallacei Wilms, 1999 Geochelone nigra chatamensis Caccone, Gibbs, Ketmaier, Suatoni & Powell, 1999 Geochelone nigra wallacei Chambers, 2004 Chelonoidis nigra darwini Testudo wallacei Rothschild, 1902 Testudo darwini Van Denburgh, 1907 Testudo elephantopus darwini Mertens & Wermuth, 1955 Testudo elephantopus wallacei Mertens & Wermuth, 1955 Geochelone darwini Pritchard, 1967 Geochelone elephantopus darwini Pritchard, 1967 Geochelone elephantopus wallacei Pritchard, 1967 Geochelone wallacei Pritchard, 1967 Chelonoidis darwini Bour, 1980 Chelonoidis elephantopus darwini Obst, 1985 Chelonoidis elephantopus wallacei Obst, 1985 Chelonoidis nigra darwinii David, 1994 (ex errore) Chelonoidis elephantopus darwinii Rogner, 1996 Chelonoidis nigra darwini Bonin, Devaux & Dupré, 1996 Chelonoidis nigra wallacei Bonin, Devaux & Dupré, 1996 Cherlonoidis nigra wallacei Wilms, 1999 Geochelone nigra darwinii Ferri, 2002 Geochelone nigra wallacei Chambers, 2004 Chelonoidis nigra duncanensis Testudo duncanensis Garman, 1917 (nomen nudum) Geochelone nigra duncanensis Stubbs, 1989 Geochelone nigra duncanensis Garman, 1996 Chelonoidis nigra duncanensis Artner, 2003 Chelonoidis duncanensis Joseph-Ouni, 2004 Chelonoidis nigra hoodensis Testudo hoodensis Van Denburgh, 1907 Testudo elephantopus hoodensis Mertens & Wermuth, 1955 Geochelone elephantopus hoodensis Pritchard, 1967 Geochelone hoodensis Pritchard, 1967 Chelonoidis hoodensis Bour, 1980 Chelonoidis elephantopus hoodensis Obst, 1985 Chelonoidis nigra hoodensis David, 1994 Chelonoidis nigra phantastica Testudo phantasticus Van Denburgh, 1907 Testudo phantastica Siebenrock, 1909 Testudo elephantopus phantastica Mertens & Wermuth, 1955 Geochelone elephantopus phantastica Pritchard, 1967 Geochelone phantastica Pritchard, 1967 Chelonoidis phantastica Bour, 1980 Geochelone phantasticus Crumly, 1984 Chelonoidis elephantopus phantastica Obst, 1985 Chelonoidis nigra phantastica David, 1994 Chelonoidis nigra porteri Testudo nigrita Duméril & Bibron, 1835 Testudo porteri Rothschild, 1903 Testudo elephantopus nigrita Mertens & Wermuth, 1955 Geochelone elephantopus porteri Pritchard, 1967 Geochelone nigrita Pritchard, 1967 Chelonoidis nigrita Bour, 1980 Geochelone elephantopus nigrita Honegger, 1980 Geochelone porteri Fritts, 1983 Chelonoidis elephantopus nigrita Obst, 1985 Geochelone nigra porteri Stubbs, 1989 Chelonoidis elephantopus porteri Gosławski & Hryniewicz, 1993 Chelonoidis nigra nigrita David, 1994 Geochelone nigra perteri Müller & Schmidt, 1995 (ex errore) Chelonoidis nigra porteri Bonin, Devaux & Dupré, 1996 Chelonoidis nigra vicina Testudo elephantopus Harlan, 1827 Testudo microphyes Günther, 1875 Testudo vicina Günther, 1875 Testudo macrophyes Garman, 1917 Testudo vandenburghi de Sola, 1930 Testudo elephantopus elephantopus Mertens & Wermuth, 1955 Geochelone elephantopus Williams, 1960 Geochelone elephantopus elephantopus Pritchard, 1967 Geochelone elephantopus guentheri Pritchard, 1967 Geochelone elephantopus guntheri Pritchard, 1967 (ex errore) Geochelone elephantopus microphyes Pritchard, 1967 Geochelone elephantopus vandenburgi Pritchard, 1967 (ex errore) Geochelone guntheri Pritchard, 1967 Geochelone microphyes Pritchard, 1967 Geochelone vandenburghi Pritchard, 1967 Geochelone vicina Pritchard, 1967 Geochelone elephantopus microphys Arnold, 1979 (ex errore) Geochelone elephantopus vandenburghi Pritchard, 1979 Chelonoides elephantopus Obst, 1980 Chelonoidis elephantopus Bour, 1980 Chelonoidis guentheri Bour, 1980 Chelonoidis microphyes Bour, 1980 Chelonoidis vandenburghi Bour, 1980 Geochelone guentheri Fritts, 1983 Chelonoidis elephantopus elephantopus Obst, 1985 Chelonoidis elephantopus guentheri Obst, 1985 Chelonoidis elephantopus microphyes Obst, 1985 Chelonoidis elephantopus vandenburghi Obst, 1985 Geochelone elephantopus vicina Swingland, 1989 Geochelone elephantopus vicini Swingland, 1989 (ex errore) Chelonoidis elephantopus guntheri Gosławski & Hryniewicz, 1993 Chelonoidis nigra guentheri David, 1994 Chelonoidis nigra microphyes David, 1994 Chelonoidis nigra vandenburghi David, 1994 Geochelone nigra elephantopus Müller & Schmidt, 1995 Chelonoidis elephantopus vicina Rogner, 1996 Geochelone elephantopus vandenburghii Obst, 1996 (ex errore) Geochelone vandenburghii Obst, 1996 Chelonoidis nigra microphyies Bonin, Devaux & Dupré, 1996 (ex errore) Geochelone elephantopus microphytes Paull, 1996 (ex errore) Geochelone elephantopus vandenbergi Paull, 1996 (ex errore) Testudo elephantopus guntheri Paull, 1999 Chelonoidis nigra vicina Artner, 2003 Chelonoidis vicina Joseph-Ouni, 2004 Geochelone nigra guentheri Chambers, 2004

由於加拉帕戈斯群島中不同島上的生態環境有明顯的差異，故不同亞種的象龜形態都不同。在濕潤的高地島，象龟更大，有半球形的壳和短脖子，在干燥的低地岛，象龟更小，有马鞍形的壳和长脖子。这啟發出達爾文對“演化論”的思考。

近年這些群島上各品種之間的關係存在爭議，故現時將加拉帕戈斯象龜歸類為一個物種綜合（species complex），而非單一物種。

16世纪加拉巴哥象龜的數量大約有25萬隻，1970年代只剩下3000只，主要原因是人的捕猎以获取肉和油，栖息地被农业生产占用和物种入侵，如羊和猪。原有的15个亚种还剩十个亚种在野外生存，第十一个亚种只剩一只名为「孤独乔治」的雄龟，于2012年6月死亡。20世纪初开始的动物保护活动使象龟现有的数量回复到1.9万只。在国际自然保护联盟名录中属于易危物种。

分佈與棲息地

 

各亞種分佈：灰色表示尚有原生象龜的島嶼，但分佈極西的費爾南迪納島象龜於2019年重新被發現

加拉帕戈斯象龜只分佈於南美洲加拉帕戈斯群島的9個小島上。為適應各島上不同的環境以及食物來源，象龜在數百萬年間分化成15个亚种，现在仅約10种还有野外存活的个体，最近絕種的品种平塔岛象龟（C. n. abingdoni）曾長期只剩一只名为「孤独乔治」的雄龟。加拉巴戈斯國家公園（Galapagos National ParkService）於2012年6月24日發出聲明，「孤獨喬治」已經死亡。在6月24號當日，長久以來一直照顧「孤獨喬治」的勒裏納（Fausto Llerena）發現牠的屍體癱在地上，面朝聖克魯斯島（Santa Cruz Island）上「牠水坑的所在方向」。^[16]

品種列表

品種 ^[17]^[18]	保育狀況
C. abingdonii 平塔島象龜	2012年絶種，但在2007年於伊莎貝拉島發現與此種的混種^[19]
C. becki (named for Rollo Beck) 沃爾夫火山象龜（來自伊莎貝拉島）	易危
C. chathamensis 聖克里斯托巴爾島象龜	瀕危
C. darwini (以查爾斯·達爾文命名) 聖地亞哥島象龜	極危
C. duncanensis 平松島象龜	易危
C. donfaustoi 加拉帕戈斯·唐福斯托象龜（分佈在聖克魯茲島東部）	未知，現存約250隻；於2015年獲確認為新種
C. guentheri (以阿爾伯特·甘瑟命名) 內格拉火山象龜（來自伊莎貝拉島）	瀕危
C. hoodensis 艾斯潘諾拉島（西班牙島）象龜	極危
C. microphyes (L. 'small in stature') 達爾文火山象龜（來自伊莎貝拉島）	易危
C. nigra (L. 'black') 弗雷里安納島象龜	1846年被宣布絕種
C. phantasticus 費爾南迪納巨龜（分佈在費爾南迪納島）	極危；於2019年重新被發現
C. porteri 聖克魯茲島象龜	極危
C. vandenburghi 阿爾塞多火山象龜（來自伊莎貝拉島）	易危
C. vicina (L. 'near') 阿蘇爾火山象龜（來自伊莎貝拉島）	瀕危

習性

龜是變溫動物，因此在陽光下曬1-2小時，吸收太陽的熱量，而天亮後他們會透過爬樹積極覓食。牠們每天睡8-9小時，大多在清晨或傍晚休息。同時，牠們的行走速度為每小時0.3公里（0.2英里）。

在較大、較潮濕及低海拔的島嶼上，龜之間會出現季節性遷移，在乾燥的季節，牠們會遷移到海拔較高（610米）的草原地區。同一路線已出現了很長時間，創造良好行走的路徑，而被烏龜通過的灌木叢被稱為「烏龜公路」。

在涼爽的夜晚，加拉帕戈斯象龜會會在泥濘的及雨水形成的池中休息，這可能是由於需要進行體溫調節和驅趕寄生蟲。亦有些龜會在伸出的岩石下休息。

飲食

加拉帕戈斯象龜是草食動物，食物包括仙人掌、草、樹葉、苔蘚和漿果等。一隻烏龜平均每天吃32-36公斤（70-80磅）的食物，但因消化系統的效率較低，因此攝取的營養也較少。

陸龜以植物的露水和汁液獲得大部分水份，因此，他們可以在很長時間內不喝水。他們也可以忍受長達18個月的時間不進食不喝水；而口渴時，他們喝水的速度可以既大量又快速，並儲在自己的膀胱及心臟，使他們在長時間內不用再喝水。在乾旱的島嶼上，象龜會在清晨時舔舐巨石上的露水，許多岩石上已形成因連續多代的此類行為所造成的岩石凹陷。

瀕危原因

在達爾文初到加拉帕戈斯群島時，加拉帕戈斯象龜的數量大約有25萬隻，現在卻只剩下1萬9千隻。數量劇降的最主要原因是18至19世紀的捕鯨者及海盜經常捕捉象龜作為在船上的糧食。

保護狀況

加拉帕戈斯群島現已受到厄瓜多政府保護，列為國家公園，也是世界自然遺產。

参见

• 野外滅絕動物列表
• 保護現狀
• 瀕危物種
• 世界自然保護聯盟瀕危物種紅色名錄
• 孤独乔治

参考资料

1. Quoy, J.R.C.; Gaimard, J.P. Sous-genre tortue de terre – testudo. brongn. tortue noire – testudo nigra. N.. de Freycinet, M.L. (编). Voyage autour du Monde ... exécuté sur les corvettes de L. M. "L'Uranie" et "La Physicienne," pendant les années 1817, 1818, 1819 et 1820. Paris. 1824b: 174–175 （法语）. 
2. Günther 1877，第85頁 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGünther1877 (help)
3. Van Denburgh, John. Preliminary descriptions of four new races of gigantic land tortoises from the Galapagos Islands. Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences, Series 4. 1907, 1: 1–6 [2012-01-12]. （原始内容于2012-05-23）. 
4. Garman, Samuel. The Galapagos tortoises. Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College. 1917, 30 (4): 261–296. 
5. Rothschild, Walter. Description of a new species of gigantic land tortoise from Indefatigable Island. Novitates Zoologicae. 1903, 10: 119 [2012-01-11]. （原始内容于2012-10-01）. 
6. Günther, Albert. Description of the living and extinct races of gigantic land-tortoises. parts I. and II. introduction, and the tortoises of the Galapagos Islands. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Biological Sciences. 1875, 165: 251–284. Bibcode:1875RSPT..165..251G. JSTOR 109147. doi:10.1098/rstl.1875.0007. 
7. Pritchard 1996，第49頁 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFPritchard1996 (help)
8. Gray, John Edward. Description of a new species of tortoise (Testudo planiceps), from the Galapagos Islands. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. 1853, 21 (1): 12–13 [2012-01-11]. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1853.tb07165.x. （原始内容于2012-05-23）. 
9. Williams, Ernest E.; Anthony, Harold Elmer; Goodwin, George Gilbert. A new fossil tortoise from Mona Island West Indies and a tentative arrangement of the tortoises of the world. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 1952, 99 (9): 541–560. hdl:2246/418. 
10. Pritchard, Peter Charles Howard. Living turtles of the world. New Jersey: TFH Publications. 1967: 156. 
11. Bour, R. Essai sur la taxinomie des Testudinidae actuels (Reptilia, Chelonii). Bulletin du Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle (Paris). 1980, 4 (2): 546 （法语）. 
12. 引证错误：没有为名为R2010的参考文献提供内容
13. Baur, G. (PDF). The American Naturalist. 1889, 23 (276): 1039–1057 [2012-01-11]. doi:10.1086/275045. （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2018-05-01）. 
14. DeSola, Ralph. The liebespiel of Testudo vandenburghi, a new name for the mid-Albemarle Island Galápagos tortoise. Copeia. 1930, 1930 (3): 79–80. JSTOR 1437060. doi:10.2307/1437060. 
15. Fritz Uwe; Peter Havaš. Checklist of Chelonians of the World (PDF). Vertebrate Zoology. 2007, 57 (2): 271–276 [29 May 2012]. ISSN 18640-5755. （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2010年12月17日）. 
16. . 2012-06-24 [24 June 2012]. （原始内容存档于2012-06-28）. 
17. Chelonoidis nigra. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 1996. [April 1, 2010]. 
18. Pritchard, Encyclopedia of turtles, Neptune, New Jersey: T. F. H. Publ., Inc., 1979 
19. DNA search gives hope to tortoise （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）^{[與來源不符]}. BBC News. (Accessed 2012-01-14.)

• 加拉巴哥象龜綜合 C. nigra complex^[1]

外部連結

  维基共享资源上的相關多媒體資源：Chelonoidis nigra

1. Rhodin, A.G.J.; van Dijk, P.P. Turtles of the world, 2010 update: Annotated checklist of taxonomy, synonymy, distribution and conservation status. Iverson, J.B.; Shaffer, H.B (编). Turtle taxonomy working group. Chelonian Research Foundation. 2010: 33–34. doi:10.3854/crm.5.000.checklist.v3.2010.  缺少或|title=为空 (帮助)