外殼膜

提示：此条目的主题不是外套膜。

外殼膜（periostracum），亦作殻皮^[1]:251，是軟體動物及腕足动物门物種的外殼之外的一層包裹物；但兩個分類的外殼膜由不同材質組成，亦使這兩種外殼膜表現出不同的特徵。在軟體動物，主要為腹足綱及雙殼綱最常見，但在頭足綱如異鸚鵡螺屬之類的物種也有外殼膜。外殼膜與其包裹的外殼及外殼上的其他分層都是整個外殼的整全部分，也成為了這些物種的可分辨外觀。

The shell of Stenotrema florida, a land snail or terrestrial gastropod. The periostracum of this species has minute hairs, giving the snail a velvety feel

A yellowish tan periostracum is visible on the lower two thirds of this juvenile (8 cm) valve of the marine bivalve Spisula solidissima

The dark periostracum is flaking off of this dried-out valve of the "ocean quahog", marine bivalve Arctica islandica, from Wales

Fresher valves of Arctica islandica with periostracum intact. Note that the periostracum is partially worn off on the umbo, this is because the umbo is older than the rest of the shell and also projects more: it has been exposed to more abrasion during the life of the clam

Periostracum這個字由perio-（包圍）和stracum兩部分組成，意思就是「包圍着外殼」，包圍着外殼的鈣質層（ostracum）^[2]。

軟體動物

成份

軟體動物的外殻膜是一層覆蓋在新鮮殻表面的纖維狀角質物^[1]:251，這種角質蛋白叫作贝壳素，主要由醌鞣製的蛋白質組成，與其他生物上皮組織組成的角質層相似^[3]。

功能

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The formation of a shell requires certain biological machinery. The shell is deposited within a small compartment, the extrapallial space, which is sealed from the environment by the periostracum, a leathery outer layer around the rim of the shell, where growth occurs. This caps of the extrapallial space, which is bounded on its other surfaces by the existing shell and the mantle.^[4]:475 The periostracum acts as a framework from which the outer layer of carbonate can be suspended, but also, in sealing the compartment, allows the accumulation of ions in concentrations sufficient for crystallization to occur. The accumulation of ions is driven by ion pumps packed within the calcifying epithelium. The organic matrix forms the scaffold that directs crystallization, and the deposition and rate of crystals is also controlled by hormones produced by the mollusc.^[4]:475 The periostracum was probably essential in allowing early molluscs to obtain large size with a single valve.^[5]

The periostracum is secreted from a groove in the mantle, termed the periostracal groove. When secreted, it consists of the soluble protein periostracin; this polymer becomes insoluble through a tanning process involving quinone.^[4]

Description

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Periostracum is often yellowish or brownish in color. In some species it is black. The periostracum is very often a different color than the underlying layer of the shell.

In the shells of species which have periostracum, this shell layer is quite often physically worn away or chemically eroded in the parts of the shell that are older, thus it may only still be visible in the more recently formed areas of the shell.

Periostracum can in some cases be quite thin, smooth, glossy and transparent, such that it looks almost like a thin yellow varnish, or it can be thicker and more or less opaque. When it is thick it is often relatively rough in texture and dull. In some species the periostracum is tufted, or forms hair-like growths which in some cases can give the fresh shell a velvety feel, see. In some species the periostracum adheres very tightly to the underlying shell surface, in others the periostracum is less firmly attached.

In certain marine species, such as for example certain species of cone snails, a heavy periostracum obscures the color patterns that exist on the calcareous layer of the shell.

In many aquatic species, once a shell has been removed from the water and has had time to completely dry out, then the periostracum may become brittle and start to flake or peel off of the surface of the shell.

It is not uncommon for shell collectors to deliberately remove a periostracum layer (using household bleach) if they feel that a shell is more attractive without it. However the periostracum is an important part of the shell, and is definitely of interest to malacologists. Details of the periostracum can sometimes be very helpful in identifying a species.

Hairs on gastropod shells

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Haired shells occur in gastropods in several species of the Stylommatophoran families Polygyridae, Helicidae and Hygromiidae. These families are only distantly related, suggesting that this features has evolved several times independently. Haired shells are almost exclusively observed in species living in moist microhabitats, like layers of fallen leaves, broad-leaved vegetation, damp meadows or wet scree. Such a correlation suggests an adaptive significance of the trait in such a habitat; it was thus speculated that the hydrophobic hairs facilitate the movement in wet environments by relieving surface tension.^[6]

These hairs can reach varying densities (up to 20 per squaremilimetre) and lengths (up to three millimetres). In some cases hardly visible, they confer an almost furry impression to the shell in others. These semi-rigid structures are part of the periostracum, a thin protein layer (conchiolin) secreted by the snail to cover the calcareous shell. Building hairs requires the snail to have specialised glandular tissue and complex strategies to form them. Consequently, this trait can be assumed to be costly and should thus present a selective advantage to its bearers in order to be conserved.^[6]

Experiments by Pfenninger et al. (2005)^[6] on genus Trochulus showed an increased adherence of haired shells to wet surfaces. Haired shells appeared to be the ancestral character state, a feature most probably lost three times independently. The possession of hairs facilitates the adherence of the snails to their herbaceous food plants during foraging when humidity levels are high. The absence of hairs in some Trochulus species could thus be explained as a loss of the potential adaptive function linked to habitat shifts.^[6]

腕足动物

参见：腕足動物的分類 § 三綱分類

腕足动物门的外殼膜在不同物種由不同成份組成，包括有：糖胺聚糖及甲殼素、幾丁質或蛋白质，當中以幾丁質為主。 在這些腕足动物的外套膜邊沿上相對比較新的細胞所分泌的物質將外殻膜延展，但又會被其外套膜上層較新的細胞所取代，然後轉變功能成為為其外殻分泌礦物質構築物的細胞^[7]。

參看

• 外殼 (軟體動物)
• Lorica

參考文獻

1. Dance, S. Peter. 世界貝殼圖鑑 2nd. 2008. 
2. Periostracum. Dictionary.com Unabriged. Random House. [2015-05-10]. 
3. Brusca, R.C. and Brusca, G.J. 1990. Invertebrates. Sinauer Assoc., Inc, Sunderland, Massachusetts. p. 716.
4. Marin, Frédéric; Luquet, Gilles. Molluscan shell proteins. Comptes Rendus Palevol. 2004, 3 (6–7): 469. doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2004.07.009. 
5. Caron, Jean-Bernard; Scheltema, Amélie; Schander, Christoffer; Rudkin, David. Reply to Butterfield on stem-group "worms": Fossil lophotrochozoans in the Burgess Shale. BioEssays. 2007, 29 (2): 200–2. PMID 17226817. doi:10.1002/bies.20527. 
6. Pfenninger, M.; Hrabáková, M.; Steinke, D.; Dèpraz, A. Why do snails have hairs? A Bayesian inference of character evolution [為什麼蝸牛會有毛髮？]. BMC Evolutionary Biology. 2005, 5: 59. PMC 1310604  . PMID 16271138. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-5-59 （英语）. 
7. Doherty, P.J. The Lophophorates. Anderson, D.T. (编). Invertebrate Zoology 2. Oxford University Press. 2001: 356–363. ISBN 0-19-551368-1. 

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